Medieval Blood Transfusions

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Prior to the revolutionary medical discoveries of the 19th century, relatively little was known about illness and disease. Medicine of the time revolved around an ancient theory proposed by Galen, a Roman physician, in the 2nd century. Galen believed that a healthy human possessed equal levels of the “four humors”, including: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. According to this theory, a patient became ill when an imbalance occurred in any of the humors; to cure the patient, physicians develop treatments with the intention of returning the humors to equilibrium (3) Galen’s theory, though disproved by later physicians, does provide some accurate information such as blood and its vitality to human health.  

The “four humors” theory shows an awareness of blood, but physicians did not know the complex physiology of blood. During the 19th century, physician James Blundell wanted to gain a deeper understanding of the hematologic system. Blundell, an English obstetrician, often saw women die during childbirth, as a result of hemorrhaging. This prompted him to develop a mechanism for blood transfusions, like modern systems today. The first surgeon to perform a successful blood transfusion, Blundell also contributed significant surgical advancements to the medical field (1). Not every transfusion was a success though, as hematology was in its early stages and lacking information.  

Today, blood transfusions are a routine medical procedure, typically completed within hours, but in the early 19th century they were experimental and only performed in dire situations. In his medical records, Blundell noted that some patients did not recover from transfusions, and “suffered fever, back ache, headache, and passed dark urine” (2). Modern medical professionals would recognize these symptoms to be caused by the transfusion of an incompatible blood type. These incompatibilities and distinctions of blood types were not identified until the early 20th century. Regardless of the risks, physicians performed blood transfusions as they found necessary, many of which saved dying patients. Blundell published a report of his findings in the 1829 issue of Lancet, in which he says of a transfusion recipients experience, “she felt as if life were infused into her body” (2); this gave the experimental procedure credibility among society, and blood transfusions were regarded as “life-giving” procedures.  

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Bram Stoker seemed to share this common belief about transfusions and refers to it in his novel Dracula. Lucy, in critical condition after sustaining another attack from Dracula, needs a blood transfusion. Van Helsing, preparing to donate his blood to the dying Lucy, tells Dr. Seward, “she wants blood, and blood she must have or die” (4). There are multiple scenes in which Stoker addresses the lifesaving properties of blood which he observed in England during the 19th century, and the novel is unified by the theme of blood lust.  

Sources: 

1. "Blood Transfusions." History of Surgery: 18-19th Century. n.p., n.d. https://bhatmanjim.weebly.com/blood-transfusions.html 
2. "James Blundell: pioneer of blood transfusion" Healio. HemOnc Today, 25 February 2009. https://www.healio.com/hematology-oncology/news/print/hemonc-today/%7Be144eb73-e097-43b0-b128-65af2c9029a4%7D/james-blundell-pioneer-of-blood-transfusion  
3. "The World of Shakespeare's Humors." U.S. National Library of Medicine. National Institute of Health, 30 January 2012. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/shakespeare/fourhumors.html  
4. Stoker, Bram. Dracula. W. W. Norton & Company. 1897. Print. 
5. Cochran, John. "James Blundell" SciHi Blog: daily blog on science, tech & art in history. N.p., n.d. 27 December 2017. http://scihi.org/james-blundell-blood-transfusion/
6. "A 19th Century blood transfusion" Blood Transfusion History: Infusing Life. Shannon Selin, 2013. https://shannonselin.com/2018/10/blood-transfusion-history/